In this e-book, we’ll discuss how to give interviews, which is a qualitative methodology and included in mixed methods research. We’ll cover individual interviews, structured, unstructured, and semi-structured interviews, and two different kinds of focus groups: the standard approach and Dump, Lump, Name (DLN). This scope excludes surveys and the analysis of interview data.

Interview Fundamentals

Interviews are different from casual conversations, and considered by Timothy Lincoln as “one of the most powerful data collection techniques in the qualitative research arsenal.” They are purposeful conversations between individuals or with groups.

Each party has a distinct role:

• The interviewer is a researcher, who wants to gain pertinent information (data) on a particular study. He/she has an ethical obligation to protect participants from harm, and follows an interview protocol (set of questions) to ensure consistency between interviews and the integrity of the data set. The interviewer needs to be open to unforeseen turns and ask clarifying questions.
• The interviewee is a participant, who has direct knowledge and/or experience in the area of the researcher’s study.

About your interviewees

Some questions can trigger strong emotions or reactions. Remember that your role is as a researcher, not a pastor or clinician. The interview is not about you as researcher; you are collecting data from a participant. You have an ethical obligation to treat participants as fully human. They have chosen to share something of their life with you. Meet them where they are; fully human, bearing the image of God, and not simply a data source.

Important reminder: when a person talks about their feelings, you are still a researcher capturing data. Do not indicate your feelings in response–surprise, disagreement, agreement, etc.

Planning Considerations

Good interviewers move smoothly through the process because they prepare well beforehand.

How many interviews?

The number of interviews can vary. With fewer participants, it is possible to have multiple interviews and gather richer data. With multiple participants, it is possible to have single interviews, as long as you keep within your project deadlines and any other time limitations. The time commitment for conducting and transcribing an hour-long interview is five or more hours.

Setting

The setting is private and in person, so it needs to address various requirements:

1. It must be safe – physically, psychologically, and emotionally for both parties.
2. It must be convenient for participants. It should be a familiar location for each participant’s mental, physical, and emotional comfort, so it is best to let them choose a place. Accessibility might be a factor, e.g. wheelchair access.
3. It must enable you to maintain confidentiality.
4. Minimize distractions such as interruptions and background noise.

If the setting is online, check that participants have access to the internet with a stable connection. You may be able to record meetings easily but you might have challenges reading body language.

In some cases, you might have only audio communication. In this setting, you still consider:

1. How you will establish a personal connection and rapport
2. How you will establish conversation flow
3. That you will be unable to observe the participant’s body language and guage their comfort level. For example:
• Was that comment serious or tongue-in-cheek?
• Should I go deeper or move on?

Consent Forms

US researchers are organizationally responsible to their Institutional Review Board (IRB) for research ethics. Participants are asked to sign consent forms; these are individual and contain:

1. a statement that the project is research and participation is voluntary,
2. a summary of the research, including: purpose, duration, procedures,
3. any reasonably foreseeable risks or discomforts, and
4. any reasonably expected benefits arising from the research.

Recording

Researchers have several options of ways to record interviews: audio, video, and note-taking.

Communication

Consider possible language barriers. Will the interview be done in their first language? Could they be hearing impaired?

A focus group assistant?

If you plan to have focus groups, consider whether you will need an assistant. Focus groups are more complicated than individual interviews because the researcher is working with multiple people at the same time, each of whom deserves the researcher’s attention. A focus group session can have many other moving parts, for example:

1. Moving furniture, checking in participants, helping with name tags, collecting consent forms, distributing handouts, etc.
2. Critiquing the researcher’s performance on what went well, and what didn’t.
3. During DLN, collecting cards during silent brainstorming and placing them on the main work table.

Developing your questions

How much structure?

Interviews can be structured, unstructured, or semistructured.

• In structured interviews, the researcher strictly adheres to the set of interview questions, and asks only those questions.
• Unstructured interviews take place with few, if any, pre-determined interview questions and often progress in the manner of a normal conversation. Researchers use this relatively formless interview style to establish rapport and comfort with the participant, and it is extremely helpful when researchers are discussing sensitive topics and need to explore unexpected issues.
• In semi-structured interviews, the researcher uses a set of questions to guide the conversation between the researcher and participant, and the researcher may also probe the participant for additional details.

About questions

Structured and semistructured interviews require a written set of questions (sometimes called a protocol) that the interviewer consistently asks of each participant, that:

1. signals to the participant where the journey is going and when it will end,
2. disciplines the researcher to ask each core question the same way to all participants, and
3. helps the researcher to keep track of the interview.

This section contains important considerations for developing your set of questions.

1. A good literature review makes you a more knowledgeable questioner, and helps inform your questions for the gaps in published content.
2. The first few minutes can be awkard. Begin the interview with questions that will make them relaxed and comfortable. Some questions ask for background information and may be relatively unthreatening, allowing the participant to reduce any anxiety or nervousness.
3. Consider the number and type of questions. Compose questions for responses that will best help move your study forward–narrow and deep.
4. Avoid questions that would incline the interviewee to give a particular answer.
5. Consider the ways that the demographics of interviewees (race, class, gender, culture, age, etc.) and life experience may shape the content and dynamics of the interview. Review your questions for unintentional bias.
6. Refine the questions to fit your time constraints. If time might be inadequate, consider whether you should do follow-on interviews.
7. Put the questions in an order that is logical to the interviewee, (not necessarily the same as the order that is logical to you).

During interviews

1. Keep an eye on the time. Do not let the interview go over the agreed time limit.
2. Ask only one question at a time.
3. You can ask interviewees to clarify meanings. It isn't rude; it lets the participant know you are engaged with them and that their experience is valuable to the study.
4. Consider exploratory or probing questions, for example:
• “Can you give me an example of that?”
• “How does what you told me just now relate to [X]?” (X is something said earlier in the interview.)
• “You have talked about [unclear phrase]. I’m not familiar with that term. Would you define it for me, please?”
• “Can you recall an event about [X] that really stands out?”
• “How did [X] make you feel?”
5. Before concluding, always ask: “What else would you like to add?”

Interviewing Individuals

Individual interviews have various benefits:

1. You can probe the individual’s experiences in depth.
2. Scheduling involves only you and one participant.
3. You can choose from a variety of locations: in person, online, or phone.
4. You have more opportunity to ask participants to clarify meaning.
5. The conversation can flow, making it easier to take turns speaking.
6. The one-on-one comfort level might be better for inexperienced researchers.

Individual interviews also have drawbacks. The researcher collects data from only one participant at a time. Moreover, the participant responds only to the researcher, and has no others to trigger additional thoughts.

The process

1. Preliminaries
1. Arrive early.
2. Have all materials at hand: consent form, recording devices, handouts, timer.
3. Test your recording devices, have a backup, and check batteries.
2. Introduction
1. Welcome the participants and introduce your assistant, if applicable.
2. Establish rapport. Start with small talk to break the ice and make the participant feel relaxed and comfortable, and avoid controversial topics like the plague – literally!
3. Make a deliberate change in your tone of voice to indicate that you are starting the formal interview process.
4. Give a brief overview of the study. It is the elevator pitch about your study.
3. Obtain consent and relevant background information.
1. Give out two copies of the consent form and give participants ample time to read the form and ask any questions before signing. Give the participant one copy for their own records.
2. Record relevant background information, such as as gender, church affiliation, age, etc.
4. Questions and answers
1. Remind the participant of the following:
1. Participation is voluntary and they may withdraw during the interview if they feel uncomfortable.
2. You will be recording the session.
3. You will be taking a few notes along with the audio recording. (These are helpful for noting body language changes or when facial expressions occur that are not captured on audio. Handwritten notes are preferable to a laptop, which can be distracting both visually and by the sound of typing.)
2. Remember to keep eye contact as much as possible; ideally, you have a separate person to take notes so you can be fully engaged (and not distracted yourself) in the interview.
3. Turn on the recording device.
4. Put the timer in your line of sight.
5. Make a note of (or record) the full name of the person you are interviewing, along with the date, time, and place of the interview, so that you can create proper citations for the interview in your paper.
5. Ask your set of questions, considering good interviewers:
1. Make it enjoyable – for you and the participant.
2. Display interest in a way that does not influence their responses. You need accurate data.
3. Ask all the questions.
4. Refrain from anticipating responses, interrupting, contradicting, or advising.
5. Honor time limits.
6. Listen 90% of the time, talk 10% of the time.
6. Conclude the interview.
1. Thank the participant and reinforce the value of his/her contribution to the study.
7. Follow-up
1. Compile notes as soon after the interview as possible to remember nuances, thoughts, emotions, etc., especially if you’re doing more than one interview that same day. You think you’ll remember later, but you won’t!
2. Back up recorded data.
3. Safely store consent form and background information forms.
4. Send a formal thank you note – email is fine.
5. Record background data from paper forms/notes into database or spreadsheet.

Leading a Focus Group

Focus group interviews can take one of several different forms:

1. An in-person discussion as a group,
2. An online discussion as a group,
3. An asynchronous online focus group using text. (Asyncronous indicates that group is not necessarily online together at the same time.)
4. An in-person Dump, Lump, Name (DLN) described below,

Focus group interviews have various benefits:

1. They develop group understandings.
2. Discussion can yield new insights.
3. One session provides maximum data in a minimum amount of time.
4. Asynchronous online focus group expands the study’s reach and immediately captures data as text.

Focus group interviews also have drawbacks:

1. It is difficult to schedule a group and ensure attendance.
2. Logistics – how many people can the physical location accommodate?
3. Researchers need higher skill levels to guide group conversation.
4. It is not always easy to maintain participant engagement in an asynchronous online focus group.

The Focus Group Process

1. Preliminaries
1. Arrive early.
2. Have all materials at hand, e.g. consent forms, recording devices, timer, handouts, white boards, display monitors, name tags, refreshments.
3. Arrange the space with name tags and refreshments near the door.
4. Test your recording devices (have a backup) and check batteries.
2. Arrivals and hospitality
1. Welcome each participant as he or she arrives.
2. Offer refreshments.
3. Ask each participant to wear a name tag.
4. Mingle with the group and develop rapport with small talk, avoiding controversial subjects.
3. Call the group to order.
1. Transition participants from the refreshment area to the work area.
2. Give a formal welcome and a brief overview of the study.
3. Give two copies of the consent form and allow for adequate reading time and questions.
4. Participants complete form with background information.
5. Introduce your assistant, if applicable.
4. Give an overview of the session and ground rules.
1. Describe the purpose of the session.
2. Communicate ground rules, which establish boundaries. For example:
• Everyone gets to have his/her own opinion.
• Everyone in the group is worthy of respect.
• We are not here to solve a problem or try to reach a consensus.
• It is important for everyone to feel safe to speak freely without worry of repercussions.
3. Remind participants that the session will be recorded.
4. Invite participants to ask questions.
5. Session
1. Turn on the recording device.
2. Guide participants through the protocol discussion. Facilitation is key to productive discussion for gathering data. The group will view a facilitator as trustworthy if he/she demonstrates to the group’s satisfaction that he/she has been tracking discussion accurately.
6. Thank you.
1. As the session concludes, thank the participants and reinforce the value of their contribution to the study.
7. Follow up
1. Back up recorded data and safely store consent forms.
2. Collect any artifacts produced by the focus group.
3. Write field notes and debrief with your assistant.
4. Send a formal thank you note to each participant – email is fine.

The DLN Process in Focus Groups

Dump, Lump, Name (DLN) is useful when the researcher takes an open-ended approach to a study and can conduct one or more focus groups followed by individual interviews. With the exception of step 5 (including the use of index cards), and the addition of a post-group analysis and developing an interview protocol, the process steps are the same as the regular focus group (steps 1-4, 6, 7). The different sections are as follows:

1. Use guided imagery to introduce the main topic. For example, the researcher says, “tell me about [main topic] and write one word or phrase at a time on your index cards. Every idea is welcome.”
• Dump (Silent Brainstorming). Participants write their ideas on the topic on cards, and the researcher provides more cards as needed.
• Lump. (Lump them together.) Move all cards to a table and lay them out in columns; the order doesn’t matter.
  At the direction of the researcher, without talking, participants arrange cards into clusters of words or phrases that go together.
• Name. The researcher discusses each cluster of cards with the participants, and the group assigns a preliminary name for each cluster.
2. Post-group analysis. The researcher refines the names of themes identified by the group and writes definitions for each refined theme.
3. The researcher writes an individual interview protocol using the themes and definitions discovered by the focus group.

Resources

Qualitative Research: a field manual for ministry students. Lincoln, Timothy https://books.atla.com/atlapress/catalog/view/24/178/666

Study Design in Qualitative Research—1: Developing Questions and Assessing Resource Needs Frankel, Richard; Devers, Kelly. Education for Health; Mumbai Vol. 13, Iss. 2, (May-Aug 2000): 251-261. https://www.proquest.com/openview/ddbe9585b92d5ebf50997e39d591878c/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=33821

9 Important Tips for Conducting Research Interviews Schenke, Katerina https://katerinaschenke.medium.com/the-dos-and-donts-for-conducting-research-interviews-a30a2a461d64

A Short Guide for Conducting Research Interviews University Writing Center at Appalachian State University https://www.csus.edu/indiv/o/obriene/art116/readings/guide%20for%20conducting%20interviews.pdf

Sample Informed Consent Forms for Qualitative Studies Individuals Stanford University https://web.stanford.edu/group/ncpi/unspecified/student_assess_toolkit/pdf/sampleinformedconsent.pdf The University of Edinburgh https://www.ed.ac.uk/files/imports/fileManager/Interview_Consent_Form.pdf

Focus Groups World Health Organization https://www.gfmer.ch/SRH-Course-2011/research-methodology/pdf/InformedConsent-qualitativestudies.pdf

Sample Consent Form for Institutional Review Board (IRB) Medical College of Wisconsin https://www.mcw.edu/departments/human-research-protection-program/researchers/consent-form-templates

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